The most studied epigenetic changes in clinical settings, using peripheral (e.g., whole blood and saliva) and brain samples, are alterations in methylation at CpG dinucleotides. Epigenetics is the study of heritable changes in gene function that are not due to changes in the DNA sequence. One potential mechanism is via epigenetic modifications during critical periods in development which may lead to developmental programming of long-lasting adaptive and/or maladaptive responses to changes in the early life environment. Įxactly how an environmental exposure (such as trauma) “gets under our skin,” that is, affects our biology in a long-lasting manner, remains unclear. Overall, females report lower rates of trauma exposure but are twice as likely to be diagnosed with posttraumatic stress disorder than males, potentially indicating that trauma type, frequency, and timing may increase the risk for this disorder. For example, males are more likely to experience non-sexual assault and combat-related trauma, and females are more likely to be exposed to sexual assault and childhood sexual abuse. Exposure to certain traumas appears to be sex-specific. ![]() This is alarming given that trauma or stress experienced during childhood and adulthood increases the risk for the development of psychopathology such as posttraumatic stress disorder and depression, and physical ill health such as cardiovascular disease and diabetes. ![]() A global population survey showed that 70% of respondents were exposed to traumas such as collective violence, interpersonal or intimate partner violence, and accidents/injuries. The experience of psychosocial trauma or adversity is ever-pervasive in our society.
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